Socium

Gender disparities in educational investment remain a significant barrier to achieving educational equity in many developing societies. This study examined how parental gender norms influence household educational spending on school-aged children in Lower Dir, Pakistan. Using a cross-sectional survey, we collected data from households with enrolled children to assess spending patterns and parental attitudes toward gender roles. Descriptive analyses showed that sons received higher educational spending than daughters across major categories, including school fees, books, uniforms, transportation and supplementary tuition. Independent-samples t-tests revealed statistically significant differences in total educational spending favoring boys. Furthermore, multiple regression analyses showed that parental gender norms were a significant predictor of spending patterns, even after controlling for child characteristics, household resources, parental education, school access and private-school attendance. The interaction between parental gender norms and child gender further indicated that son-favoring attitudes intensified expenditure inequalities between boys and girls. These findings suggest that educational disparities are shaped not only by economic constraints but also by deeply embedded sociocultural beliefs about the relative value of investing in sons and daughters. The study highlights the importance of addressing discriminatory gender norms alongside economic and educational interventions. Promoting equitable parental attitudes and gender-responsive educational policies may help reduce household-level inequalities and advance educational opportunities for all children in Pakistan.